Effects of Facebook Usage on the Egyptian Revolution Research Paper

Effects of Facebook Usage on the Egyptian Revolution - Research Paper Example In fact, social networking sites have been the most visited websites in the internet and a lot of news from current events have traversed the connections in these social networking sites. Among the currently existing social networking sites, perhaps the most popular is Facebook. Because of the great advantages and convenience that it offers, Facebook has been part of the ways for people to communicate with each other, from simple personal messages to updates about what is going on with both the local and international communities. As such, this research paper will look into exactly how instrumental Facebook has been in affecting one of the most controversial events of recent times, and that is the Egyptian revolution. This research study and the applied hypotheses are rooted on the Theory of Planned Behavior by Icek Ajzen (1987). The goal of the Theory of Planned Behavior is to provide an explanation as to why people do what they do (Ajzen, 1987). Theorists explain that people do so because they form an INTENTION to carry out the action. Intentions are influenced by the person’s beliefs, the social pressure to conform to the wishes of others, and their perceived ability to carry out the action. These are known as ATTITUDE, SUBJECTIVE NORM and PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL. Thus, the Theory of Planned Behavior is a theory which predicts deliberate behavior, because behavior can be deliberative and planned. According to the theory, the best predictor of behavior is intention. Intention is the cognitive representation of a person's readiness to perform a given behavior, and it is considered to be the immediate antecedent of behavior (Ajzen, 2005). This intention is determined by three things: their attitude toward the specific behavior, their subjective norms and their perceived behavioral control. The theory of planned behavior holds that only specific attitudes toward the behavior in question can be expected to predict that behavior (Manstead & Parker 1995 ; Terry, Hogg and White 1999; Parker, et al 1992). In addition to measuring attitudes toward the behavior, it is necessary to measure people’s subjective norms – their beliefs about how people they care about will view the behavior in question. To predict someone’s intentions, knowing these beliefs can be as important as knowing the person’s attitudes. Finally, perceived behavioral control influences intentions. Perceived behavioral control refers to people's perceptions of their ability to perform a given behavior. These predictors lead to intention. A general rule, the more favorable the attitude and the subjective norm, and the greater the perceived control the stronger should the person’s intention to perform the behavior in question (Aronson, Wilson and Akert 2003). This study is interested in knowing how the actions of people pertaining to using Facebook affected the revolution and partly, the study is also interested in knowing why people re acted as they did and what were the effects after such actions.

Vulnerable Population Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Vulnerable Population - Essay Example Shi and Stevens (2005) offer five reasons to focus national attention on vulnerable populations: these groups have greater health care needs; their prevalence continues to escalate; vulnerability is a societal issue; vulnerability and the nation’s health and resources are interrelated; and there is a growing emphasis on equality with respect to health. This is reflected in the demographic characteristics of the gay men. Although based on opportunistic samples, gay men have higher suicidal ideations, suicide attempts, and completed suicides. Lifetime prevalence rates of 24% to 41% suicidal ideations have been reported. The lifetime prevalence rates of serious suicidal attempts range from 7% to 20% among adult gay men. It has recently been found that 19.3% of men having sex with men would attempt suicide. It has also been found that there are higher rates of reported suicidal thoughts and attempts among adolescents reporting same-sex romantic attractions and romantic relationshi ps. There are considerable social and cultural stressors in these people, which include stigmatization, victimization, and pervasive antigay hostility. The stresses related to antigay victimization may provoke emotional distress that can have both proximal and distal relationship to suicidality. These victimizations may be related to low self-esteem, substance abuse, and subsequent mood disorders that increase their lifetime vulnerability to suicide. Health care disparity is inversely proportional to health status.... Active partnerships between nurses and their intended intervention recipients can be used effectively to plan, implement, and evaluate research and intervention programs that truly address health care and education needs as perceived by the community. Such partnerships need to foster mutual commitment, trust, and respect. Equitable distributions of goal-setting and decision-making power evolve through shared responsibilities and mutual learning among partners. Nurses should move to the forefront in the important research needed to design and implement effective interventions with vulnerable populations capitalizing on their strengths to increase their resources, reduce their risks, and improve their health status with more equitable, quality health care. In this assignment, these issues from the context of gay people and their health care needs will be examined, where a conceptual framework will be utilized to examine the necessities and utilities of interventions designed to that en d. The basic problems with the gay people are lack of recognition or acceptance by healthcare providers, homophobic attitudes, and an absence of awareness regarding the healthcare needs of this vulnerable population. They themselves experience lack of self-esteem, school truancy and drop out, runaway behaviour, and subsequent homelessness. Compounded to this, there is an enhanced incidence of drug and alcohol, abuse, prostitution and sexually transmitted diseases, depression, and suicide. Advanced practice nurses have the opportunity to improve the health of the gay youths through recognition, education, outreach, and advocacy. Shi and Stevens (2005) offer five reasons to focus national attention on

Teenage Drug Abuse Children And Young People Essay

Teenage Drug Abuse Children And Young People Essay In my opinion, that I believe the most pressing problems in our country is the teenager social problem. That affects our country, because teenagers are the hope of country in future. After that, the letter write to  local education authority is about compulsory school uniform for all  pupils. Pupil wears school uniform that is more advantage for them in the school life.   This assignment has three sections that are introduction, content and conclusions and recommendations. The teenager problem can prevent by parent, counselor, doctor and police. When our teenager is in a problem they cannot settle, parent must give enough concern, confidence, believe what they say and find the solution to fix the problem together or give recommendation to then. The society must feel tolerance to teenager, because they are growing in grey area between childhood and adulthood. It many advantange if all of pupil wear school uniform . Wearing school uniform mean everyone is the same , no one can set fashion or teased for wearing weird or out of fashion clothes . Also, it can avoid some bullying cases because of wear school uniform. Teenager and parent need to have a good communicate, parent give good enough love and support, teens are feel themselves is very important. Pupils have to compulsory wears school uniform because it can show more discipline and look smart. Therefore, school uniform is very important to pupil. 1.0 Introduction The teenagers are very important for development of one nation. But now, we can heard that students damages discipline teachers car, inject drug .The increasing rate of student bully and drug abuse among youths is indeed of great concern. The causes of problems came from various factors. The main problem arises from teenagers parent. The parent is a main character for their child, sometimes parents didnt know about their children ability, thats because the teenagers feel stress and tense. Sometimes, some parents put high expectations on their children like gets the excellence in their study or become high achiever in their school. By the same time their parent too control on their activities. Therefore, teenagers feel burden with their parents hope and aim on them. When they cannot achieve their friends level their self-esteem become low and they think they are not accepted in schools society. The solution is, they find another community that can accept them. The society expressly bl ame on the teenagers when they making mistake. This kind of pressure from society put teenager in stress. The societies are not aware why does teenager react like that. Moreover the society doesnt give them chance to change their behavior and feel they are the worst people in society. Adults sometime act in poor manner for example drunken parents or drug addict parents. They become the most important cause to what have happen on teenagers. Teenage Bullying Bullying includes a wide variety of behaviors, but all involve a person or a group repeatedly trying to harm someone who is weaker. It can involve direct attacks such as hitting, and stealing or damaging belongings, indirect attacks such as spreading rumors or encouraging others to reject or exclude someone. Bullying can start at any age and can continue through high school. Most of teenager bullying cases happen in school, because the people who bully and the victim both of them are lack of social problem solving skill. There are many problem solving skill to prevent bullying. Parents are should try sitting down with teenager and brainstorming some solution to the situation. And parents are also can discuss about what they have tried before in similar situations, and what outcomes they experienced. If a child ask to parent he is a victim of school bullying, parent are cannot ignore about this, because it is very serious case. First, believe and listen what the child say, this is ver y important step to make child believe you can help him. Second, most children are deal with bullying behavior, so let the child know he is not alone in this situation. Third, if the child being threatened psychic or illegal way in school, dont complicate report to school or police. Even the child do not want to do this, but bullying is cannot be tolerate. Fourth, teach the child courage say NO if being bully. The school counselor and teachers have responsibility to prevent the school bullying, they should always take a look on student who has unusual behavior in school. The discipline teacher must increase the punishment on bullying cases. Teenage Drug Abuse Drugs and Teenagers Drug use is the increasing problem among teenagers in todays high schools. Most drug use begins in the preteen and teenage years. Why the reason teens are drug? There are many causes about teenager have a contact with drug. Family problem is one of the cause of teenager drug abuse, may be in family member who are the drug abuser, so teenager will influence by family member. Friends also is a reason of contact with drug.  If a friend in the social group use drugs , the person may be offered to try drugs, which is direct pressure. Indirect pressure is when someone sees everyone around him using drugs and he might think that there is nothing wrong with using drugs. Even if a person had no intentions of using drugs one might do it just to be considered cool by his friends. Here is a personal example of drug use from a teenager, When I started using, was only on weekends, at parties. I used drugs recreationally and therefore thought I had no addiction problem. I used drugs like nicotine, marijuana or LSD to be happy or to have fun. I needed drugs. I kept using drugs, I used drugs like marijuana to fit socially. I had problems in my life, emotionally, that drugs only seemed to solve. Drugs made my problems worse. I started snorting cocaine. I injected heroin into my veins. I almost died. I was addicted. Therefore drug is very harmful to everyone, especially teenager. Drug can destroy the teenager future or everything. The overcome method is parent must take some time to give enough concern to their children for avoid them from drugs. The school should hire a lecture to give a talk to teenager, let them know how about the drugs destroy our body and disadvantages of drug. The society must cooperate with police fight against drug dealer, without drug dealer, there are no drug to deal with buyer. Teenage Suicide Problem Teenage are caught in grey area between childhood and adulthood. Therefore, they experience strong feelings of stress , confusion , self-doubt , pressure to succeed , and other fears while growing up . For some teens , suicide may appear to be a solution to their problems and stress. Most of teenage are suicide because of unsettle problem, such as breakup relationship, pressure of homework , worry about their future and making a serious mistake they feel cannot settle , these are the reason of teenager suicide. Teenage suicide making many problem and this is an alert to society. When the teens are thinking about suicide they have some unusual behavior. They will always talking about suicide or death, feeling hopeless, give hints to people around his life he might not be around anymore . After that , teen also lose their interest in school or sport, and pull away from friend and family . What adult can do when their teen think about suicide? Parent must keep a close eye on teen want t o suicide , understanding depression in teens is very important since it can look different about depression . Try to keep the lines communication open and express concern , support , and love. If teen doesnt feel comfortable talking with parent, suggest more neutral person , such as school counselor, or a doctor. Conclusion The role of parents is crucial in giving serious attention to their children. Parents must consider the movements or the movement of their children. Parents should always know and identify the problems faced by their children and are willing to take the time to solve the problem. After that, establishing legal system in the school, student must more discipline and responsibility. Counseling at school level is important in helping teenagers overcome their problem too . Parents and Teachers Association (PTA) should play an important role . More frequent meetings between parents , guardians and teachers should be held especially for students that influenced in social problems . Parents should discuss students problem with teacher and get ready to receive an advice from a teacher with an open and positive attitude. Teenagers also need the attitude of change , if the teenagers can change their attitudes by selecting a good friend , they will not be trapped in social problems.   2.0 Introduction School uniforms should be compulsory for all students at all grade levels . There are many reasons, which justify this including discipline , discrimination and to give the students a sense of identity .   If all students at a particular school didnt wear school uniforms , there would be discrimination between the financially advantaged people and the disadvantaged people . The wealthier people would tend to look down the poorer people as it gives them a chance to flaunt their wealth . When students wear school uniforms , it shows the similarities between them , and not the differences . Each school has their own rule of law and based on that , students need to obey on that law and respect . When student wears a uniform , it shows a sign of dignity and it means that that student has confirmed the school expectations and that student feels that he or she belongs to that school . School uniforms also indicate what degree or grade the students are in , and what kind of school they go to . School uniforms are good because some children would become bullied if they did not wear the most up to date fashions . A school uniform makes it easier for the school authorities to recognize students belonging to their school . So everyone wearing the same uniform everyday that type of degrading is avoided . In short , wearing school uniform is very important and bring a lot of advantage to student . 2.1 Letter 22, Jalan Cempaka, Taman Gemilang, 31450 Ipoh, Perak . Head Of Education Authority 1, Jalan Raja, Taman Cemerlang, 30100 Ipoh, Perak. 1 June 2012 Dear Sir, Compulsory School Uniform To All Pupils I am writing this letter is to attract your attention to the above title. As the representative of the community, I am calling to tell you that many parent are claim for their children to wear a formal school uniform . There are many reason and advantages for all pupil if they wear uniform . 2. There are many disadvantage if pupil are not wearing school uniform . Teenager will wearing a expensive brand name to school to show that he or she has much money to spend on these clothes . Many of teenage feel that without wearing uniform and wearing follow own stlye is individuality and self-expression , this is a wrong concept to teenage , they never know school uniform is very important to them . Recently , there are two gang of pupil fighting on street after school time , but they are not wearing school uniform , so the people who saw the pupil fighting on the street , they cannot identify which school the pupil came from . 3. It many advantange if all of pupil wear school uniform . Wearing school uniform mean everyone is the same , no one can set fashion or teased for wearing weird or out of fashion clothes . If pupil wear school uniform , pupil can be identify by the public . If they need to make complain , public will know which school are the pupil come from . Often makes kids behave better as theyre in uniform linked to work not casual clothes they use for socializing . Also , wearing school uniform can promotes good discipline of a school . This naturally reduces incidents of violence . Pupil can come to school without worrying about personal safety . Teachers dont have to double as guards, and can concentrate on teaching . 4. Wearing a uniform gets the pupil ready for the job market , because at a job they might have to wear a uniform or dress up and this gets them accustomed to this . Also , they see their parents dress clothes for work and may take learning more seriously. Pearent dont have to spend a lot of money for new and fashion clothes to their child everytime . A school uniform apparently also saves students from putting their fashion tastes . When they dont have to spend time wondering what to wear and how to make a fashion statement , they can spend more time to getting an education . Also , pupil saves time in the morning because they already know what they are wearing to school . 5. Therefore , there are most advantage then disadvantage to wear school uniform to schoo l. Pupil can focus on education without spending time to wear fashion clothes . If pupil wear uniform , they are more save because the guard can easy identify pupil and stranger not in school . Parent also can save money to buy clothes to pupil .  When a student wears a shirt with the schools symbol, everyone knows where the student studies . 6. Finally, I hope sir will quickly establish a new school uniform to all of pupil . Thank you . Yours faithfully , (VOO JI HEN) 2.2 Conclusion To conclude , in the point of the above , school uniform has more advantages than disadvantages. I strongly believe that the  school uniform is important and has benefits . However , I think that each school should design its school uniform from time to time and let pupils decide on it . School uniform is not expensive , most of parent can pay for school uniform, if the uniform in good quality , can buy it once a year only . If pupils are not wearing school uniform to school , there are many problem to society . The pupil in rich will bully classmate who poor , because of the poor pupil didnt wear a brand name clothes . In short , pupils are wear school uniform is good for them , school uniform is very important and has advantages . 3.0 Referrence Unknown (n.d) conclusion of school uniform [online] Available at: http://www.oppapers.com/subjects/conclusion-on-school-uniforms-page1.html Unknown (n.d) advantages of wear school uniform [online] Availaible at: http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Why-School-Uniforms-Should-Be-Required/680461 Unknown (n.d) advantages of wear school uniform [online] Available at: http://www.ask.com/questions-about/Advantages-of-School-Uniforms Unknown (n.d) advantages and disadvantages of wear school uniform[online] Available at: http://www.greatschools.org/find-a-school/defining-your-ideal/121-school-uniforms.gs Unknown (n.d) causes of teenage suicide [online] Available at: http://kidshealth.org/teen/your_mind/mental_health/suicide.html Unknown (n.d) Teen Suicide Warning Signs Main Source Material [online] Available at: http://www.teensuicide.us/articles2.html Unknown (n.d) Sign of teen drug abuse [online] Available at: http://www.newportacademy.com/teen-drug-abuse/ Unknown (n.d) Bullying and problem solving skill [online] Available at: Bullying and Problem  Solving Unknown (n.d) Social problem among teenager [online] Available at: http://www.studymode.com/subjects/social-problem-among-teenagers-in-malaysia-page1.html

Hemingways A Farewell to Arms Receives Positive Criticism Essay

Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms Receives Positive Criticism Published in 1929, Ernest Hemingway finished A Farewell to Arms when he was barely 30 years old. Hemingway had been planning on writing about World War I for more than a decade, and chose A Farewell to Arms to be his attempt at a blockbuster, a novel which would sell very well.1 This view is supported by the fact that one of Hemingway's original works, presumably loss in the fiasco of Hadley's luggage, was also a war novel, emphasizing Hemingway's firm belief in the importance of war and love as a theme. By this time, of course, Hemingway was already fairly well known, having already published four short story collections and one successful novel in The Sun Also Rises. In this sense, Hemingway's timing in his quest for a big seller was perfect. Fortunately for Hemingway the book did sell, and although he was already close to being a bestseller at the time of A Farewell to Arms publishing, the novel went on to lead best-seller lists after only a few weeks in publication. In con trast to the lack of money-making power of Fitzgerald's novels, A Farewell to Arms sold 45,000 copies in only seven weeks; in fact, the interest in the book was so high Scribner's had to renegotiate Hemingway's contract following the unexpectedly large sales statistics.2 Although at this time declaring the novel a popular success almost worked against its being recognized as a good literary work, the initial reception for A Farewell to Arms was nonetheless strong. Especially impressed were the people Hemingway cared about the most: his fellow famous writers. Ford Madox Ford, in an introduction he wrote for a 1932 publication of the novel, wrote of Hemingway: "The aim - the achieveme... ...positive reception from his peers. Although in later years Hemingway turns on many of these fellow writers who praised him so lavishly, (see responding to Fitzgerald's 10 pages of criticism with "kiss my ass") their critical acclaim helped launch him to "writer superstardom." 1 Linda Wagner-Martin. Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT (2003), p. viii. 2 Ibid., p. i-viii. 3 Ford Madox Ford in "Introduction to Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms" (1932) p. 246, from Wagner-Martin "Reference Guide." 4 www.allhemingway.com/afta/4658 5 Ibid. 6 Ray B. West (1949) in Harold Bloom. Ernest Hemingway's A Farewell to Arms: Modern Critical Interpretations. Chelsea House Publishers, New York, 1987. p. 36. 7 Charles R. Anderson (1961) from Ibid., p. 46. 8 www.allhemingway.com/afta/4658 9 Wagner-Martin, p. 175-180.

Ipv4 to Ipv6 Transition

I P v 4 TO IP v 6 TRANSITION – UPDATE 2011 An overview of the new Internet a ddressing protocol, its implications for b usiness and government, and Telstra’s a pproach to the transition. WHITE PAPER September 2011 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PAGE 3 WHAT IS IPv6? PAGE 4 IPv4 ADDRESS RUN OUT PAGE 5 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IPv4 ADDRESSES RUN OUT? PAGE 6 GOVERNMENT MANDATES PAGE 8 INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IPv6 PAGE 10 WHAT DOES THE TRANSITION MEAN FOR BUSINESS? PAGE 13 WHAT IS TELSTRA’S APPROACH TO THE TRANSITION? PAGE 14 WHAT SHOULD BUSINESSES DO NOW?PAGE 16 CONCLUSION PAGE 18 APPENDIX – IP ADDRESSING PAGE 19 REFERENCES PAGE 21 WHY TELSTRA? PAGE 22 FIGURES & TABLES FIGURE 1 IPv6 ECOSYSTEM PAGE 6 FIGURE 2 DUAL-STACK SUPPORTS BOTH PROTOCOLS IN PARALLEL WITHIN ONE NETWORK PAGE 7 FIGURE 3 EXAMPLE OF A DUAL-STACK ACCESS TO THE INTERNET PAGE 14 TABLE 1 IP ADDRESS HEADER FORMATS PAGE 19 TABLE 2 INDIVIDUAL ADDRESSES AND NOTATION PAGE 20 TABLE 3 UNIQUE LOCAL ADDRESS R ANGE PAGE 20 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY IPv4 is the dominant addressing protocol used on the Internet and most private networks today.With the current exponential growth in Internet users worldwide, combined with the limited address range of IPv4, the number of available public IPv4 addresses remaining is very limited. IPv6 is the next-generation Internet protocol that will replace IPv4, providing a vastly expanded address space. This white paper provides an update on the current industry status of IPv6, how the IPv4 to IPv6 transition will affect some organisations, and Telstra’s perspective on the transition. Internet Transition IPv4, the dominant addressing protocol, is rapidly running out of capacity and will be replaced by IPv6The protocol that governs communication on the Internet (and most intranets) today is called Internet Protocol version 4, or IPv4. The popularity of the Internet has caused a shortage of public IPv4 addresses and they are quickly running out, with the glo bal registry of IPv4 addresses from the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) exhausted in February 2011 and the Asia-Pacific regional registry in April 2011I. Other Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) are expected to be exhausted between 2012 and 2014II. Once this happens, no more IPv4 addresses will be allocated to Internet service providers (ISPs).Individual ISP run-out will depend upon how well each ISP manages its address pools compared to the rate of each ISP’s subscriber growth. The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is a popular issue and one which the industry will spend more time managing in the coming years. The transition is complex and will require IPv6 support by an end-to-end industry ecosystem. The ecosystem includes customer premise equipment, modems/home gateways, network systems, management (OSS/BSS, tools), content and applications. Telstra’s Approach Telstra’s approach is based on the dual-stack solution, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-existTelstra will ensure that customers can migrate to IPv6 at their own pace, with minimal impact to services Telstra has been planning for the IPv6 transition for a number of years. We have a defined transition strategy and a well-advanced IPv6 implementation program. Our strategy for IPv6 introduction is based on the dual-stack solution, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-exist until the transition to IPv6 is complete. This approach will make sure that the transition occurs with minimal impact to customers. Customers will not be forced to move to IPv6 overnight – they can deploy and migrate to IPv6 as they become ready.Telstra is already testing dual-stack technology on a number of key networks and products to seamlessly introduce IPv6. Similar to service providers, businesses face a challenge in undertaking the complex transition of their IPv4 internal ecosystems without impacting services. Just as Telstra has done, it is advised that every online or IT-ba sed business should prepare an IPv4 to IPv6 transition strategy. Telstra will provide timely information and updates on our own program of work to assist customers, suppliers and others in the industry to manage their transition. 3 WHAT IS IP v 6?IPv6 was designed during the mid-1990s, when the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) realised that IPv4 address size constraints would soon be a major impediment to the continued growth of the Internet. IPv6 was first known as the Next Generation Internet Protocol (IPng) during development within the IETF. Since 1998, it has officially been known as IPv6. In the transition to IPv6, both IPv6 and IPv4 will co-exist until IPv6 eventually replaces IPv4. The most obvious difference between IPv6 and IPv4 is the vastly expanded IP address space available The most obvious difference between IPv6 and IPv4 is the address size.IPv6 addresses comprise 128 bits, whereas IPv4 addresses comprise 32 bits. This difference results in a huge expansion in available IP address space: ? I Pv4: 2 32 a ddresses equals 4. 3 billion addresses (less than the global human p opulation of 4. 7 billion) ? I Pv6: 2 128 a ddresses. Because the last 64 bits are used to allocate a ddresses within a subnet, that leaves 2 64, which equals 18 billion billion s ubnet addresses. IPv6 is not backwardly compatible with IPv4 Whilst IPv6 performs the same address function as IPv4, IPv6 is not backwardly compatible with IPv4. Therefore, an IP data session must use either IPv4 or IPv6 end-to-end.IPv6 and IPv4 can be used together with translation mechanisms such as Application Layer Gateways when the applications are known and supported end-to end. 4 IP v 4 ADDRESS RUN OUT The global top-level registration body, IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority), exhausted its supply of available IPv4 addresses in February 2011. APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Centre) is the Regional Internet Registry which allocates IP addresses in the Asia-Pacific region. U nfortunately for Australia, APNIC effectively ran out of addresses in April 2011. The Asia-Pacific is also the highest growth region for IP address llocation. Telstra and any other ISP in the Asia-Pacific region are now only eligible for a total allocation of 1024 further addresses from APNIC. There will be no further large allocations of IPv4 addresses for Asia-Pacific ISPs Because no further large allocations of IPv4 addresses are available, the ability of Asia-Pacific ISPs to allocate IPv4 addresses for new customers depends on the number of addresses they already hold, the rate at which they are using them for new services, and the ISP’s capability to adopt address translation technologies, which may reduce their rate of address demand.These factors will be different for each ISP, so it is likely that ISPs across the industry will run out of IPv4 addresses across a wide timeframe – some may run out within only a couple of years, others may be able to delay that exh austion well into the future. 5 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IP v 4 ADDRESSES RUN OUT? Internal enterprise networks using private IPv4 addresses will not be affected IPv4 and IPv6 will co-exist on the Internet for many years Firstly, internal enterprise networks using private IPv4 addresses will not be impacted.Nor will the run-out impact existing IPv4 networks and IPv4 based services already allocated IPv4 addresses — they will continue to operate normally. Secondly, IPv4 and IPv6 will co-exist in the Internet for many years, quite likely for decades. Unlike Y2K, there is no cut-off date when IPv4 use will cease and the world will fully migrate to IPv6. The plan is for gradual transition: different regions and industry players will move to IPv6 at different rates. Consequently, end users will need the capability to access both IPv4 and IPv6 content and services on the Internet. This dual apability may be inherent in the end users’ equipment, or may be provided transparently by t heir or the content publishers’ ISPs. To enable this dual protocol access during the transition period, technology solutions were developed in conjunction with the development of the IPv6 protocol in the mid-1990s. Three categories of transition technologies exist: ? Tunnelling – encapsulates one protocol within another (e. g. IPv6 in IPv4, IPv4 in IPv6) ? Protocol Translation – translates packets between protocols (e. g. IPv6 to IPv4) ? Dual-stack – support both protocols in parallel within one network. Telstra’s dual-stack path nables both protocols to co-exist on our networks Telstra has chosen the dual-stack path, enabling both protocols on its networks. The use of dual stack will ensure our customers have the current functionality of IPv4 always available to them even while they start deploying IPv6 in their systems. The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is a known issue which the industry will have to manage over the coming years. The transition w ill take time as it will require IPv6 support by an industry end-to-end eco-system including CPE, modems/home gateways, networks, systems (OSS/BSS, tools), content and applications.Figure 1: IPv6 Ecosystem Systems & tools Carrier/ ISP Client apps Consumer electronics Modems Operating systems Mobile handsets Public IPv6 Content/Apps Global Internet Network vendors Content/Apps Systems & tools Servers IPv6 is the accepted solution, however, moving the entire ecosystem to IPv6 will take many years Source: Telstra 6 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IP v 4 ADDRESSES RUN OUT? Telstra continually monitors industry developments with regard to the other transition technologies and we may choose to apply other methods where appropriate. Co-existence of IPv4 and IPv6Dual-stack (IPv6/IPv4) remains the accepted industry direction for the introduction of IPv6. Tunnelling has sometimes been used by early IPv6 adopters where native IPv6 has not been available end-to-end. IPv4 to IPv6 protocol translation mechanis ms may also be applied in the future in certain circumstances. Figure 2: Dual-stack supports both protocols in parallel within one network Applications TCP/UDP IPv6 IPv4 Physical Layer Dual Stack Backbone Applications TCP/UDP IPv6 IPv4 Physical Layer 7 GOVERNMENT MANDATES Some Governments have set mandates to ensure a well-managed transition rom IPv4 to IPv6 before IPv4 addresses run out The importance of continued Internet growth has been recognised by many governments due to its critical role for areas such as e-commerce, healthcare services and public information dissemination. This has led some governments to set IPv6 technology mandates to ensure a well-managed transition from IPv4 to IPv6 prior to the run-out of IPv4 addresses. The smooth and ordered adoption of these technologies will ensure continued Internet connectivity for all of their citizens. Initially targeted at enterprises, institutions and government elated Internet services, IPv6 mandates are now being issued for consumer broadband services The technology mandates have been primarily targeted at enterprises, institutions and departments that provide governments with their Internet connectivity services. Only recently IPv6 mandates for consumer broadband services have been issued. North America In August 2005, the US OMB (Office of Management and Budgets) issued Memorandum M 05 22: Transition Planning for Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6). This sets the US Federal Agencies a hard deadline for compliance to IPv6 on their core IP networks.This mandate led many major US Service Providers (e. g. AT&T, Sprint, Verizon, QWest, NTT America) to develop government and enterprise solutions to allow agencies to buy IPv6 products and services to meet their core connectivity requirements. In practice, all of the agencies met the mandate because they were able to demonstrate that their backbone networks were capable of carrying IPv6 packets by the agreed deadline. However, there was no need to actually im plement IPv6-based services. A draft roadmap for IPv6 adoption by the US Government has recently been prepared. EuropeThe European Commission communicated an IPv6 action plan in May 2008. The target was to have 25% of European customers accessing the Internet using IPv6 by 2010, which challenges all players (ISPs, content providers, customer premise equipment vendors, governments and organisations) to work towards this target. Asia Many Asian countries, including China, Japan and Korea have been early adopters of IPv6 due to government mandates. For example: ? C hinese Government Strategy: C hina Next Generation Internet (CNGI) sets o ut a five year plan (2006-2010) for the adoption of IPv6 Korean Government Strategy: T he Korean Government has the strategic IPv6 Promotion Plan II, which sets a vision of deploying IPv6 for the public sector. 8 GOVERNMENT MANDATES Australia The AGIMO (Australian Government Information Management Office) has set the following timeframes for IPv6 adopt ion within the Australian Government and its departments: ? Preparation Jan 2008 – December 2009 ? Transition Jan 2010 – December 2011 ? Implementation Jan 2012 – December 2012. The Australian Department of Defence has also mandated a move to IPv6. 9INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IP v 6 Industry has been slow to adopt IPv6 since few commercial drivers exist Across the globe, the industry has been slow to adopt IPv6, since very few commercial drivers for migration have existed at present. By its very nature, the Internet involves a huge number of disparate groups and thus a coordinated approach is difficult to achieve. The lack of a commercial imperative is due to a ‘chicken and egg’ situation: why support IPv6 in the equipment if there are no IPv6 services, and why create an IPv6 service if nobody can use it?This situation is now changing with the occurrence of the global IPv4 exhaustion. Nevertheless, while many parts of the industry are now supporting IPv 6, others are lagging behind. The following is a brief analysis of the readiness of key industry sectors: Network Equipment Generally, network equipment vendors already provide IPv6 dual-stack support In the main, network equipment vendors already provide IPv6 support (dual-stack) for the core and edge of networks. Key vendors have been hardware and softwareready for several years, with equipment deployed in small-scale trials.Even though IPv6 capability has existed in most network routing equipment for some time, it has often not been enabled for use. Network control path functions like DNS, DHCP and RADIUS, however, are not yet uniformly supported for IPv4/IPv6 dual-stack across all vendors. These remain among the ‘work in progress’ issues for the industry. Internet Infrastructure Global IPv6 interconnectivity is now growing rapidly Global IPv6 Backbones As IPv4 and IPv6 do not interwork, it is essential there is global IPv6 interconnectivity similar to the IPv4 Inter net today. The global network of IPv6 interconnectivity is now growing rapidly.We expect there will be a substantial interconnected Australian IPv6 backbone between many, if not most, ISPs by the end of 2011. Domain Name Servers IPv6 devices will resolve Internet domain names into IP addresses using IPv6 entirely A critical step along the path to IPv6 was implemented on 4 February 2008, when ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) assigned IPv6 addresses and provided IPv6 connectivity to six of the Internet’s root domain name servers (DNS). Similar enhancements are being made to other top-level DNS (e. g. for . com and . org). The APNIC servers for the . u domain also have IPv6 connectivity. These enhancements to DNS will allow IPv6 devices to resolve Internet domain names into IP addresses entirely using IPv6. Service Providers To connect to the global IPv6 Internet, customers will need to use a service provider that supports IPv6 and provides the require d connectivity through to the global IPv6 backbones. 10 INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IP v 6 Enterprise Virtual Private Networks (VPN) Service providers in the US have begun offering dual-stack VPN services largely to support federal agencies in response to US Government mandates.Telstra’s dualstack IPv6 VPN product capabilities are in an advanced stage of development. Broadband There are still few consumer broadband IPv6 offerings from ISPs, but it is expected there will be an increasing number in the Australian market during 2011-12. Customer Environment In general, few modem gateways and other consumer on-premise equipment currently support IPv6 Consumer Modems and IP Devices In general, very few modem gateways and other CPE appliances in use by consumers currently support IPv6. The main exception includes some high-end PDA mobile phones running Windows Mobile, and some CPE made for specific markets such as Japan.In the vast majority of cases, these IPv4-only devices will not be economically upgradeable to support IPv6. This is because the device is not upgradeable in any way, or because additional resources (e. g. flash memory or RAM) are required to support IPv6. IPv6 capability from many consumer gateway vendors is only starting to be released during 2011. The long lifespan of broadband modem gateways means that many consumers will not have IPv6 connectivity capability for several years unless they opt to replace their modem with a dual-stack capable gateway. Mobile HandsetsDual-stack IPv4/IPV6 capability is expected to become available on selected new mobile handsets during 2011/12. Carriers will need to support IPv6 in their networks for handset use of IPv6 to be possible. Operating Systems Most, if not all, mainstream consumer and business operating systems available now have IPv6/IPv4 dual stack capability. However, legacy systems with either no or limited IPv6 capability (such as Windows XP) are expected to be in widespread use for several years yet . 11 INDUSTRY READINESS FOR IP v 6 Applications and Content ApplicationsMany applications will work when used with IPv6. Others will need to be checked and modified Applications have to be specifically written to take advantage of IPv4/IPv6 dual stack capabilities in the underlying operating system. In many cases, applications will work correctly when used over an IPv6 network. Others will need to be checked and modified to meet the dual-stack requirements and take advantage of IPv4/IPv6 dualstack capabilities built in to most recent underlying operating systems. Applications can be divided into the following major categories: ?S erver applications: Servers typically include web servers, database s ervers and mail servers, but can also include others such as those used for multiplayer online gaming. The applications running on these servers respond to requests from client applications which are carried across I P networks ? C lient applications: End users run client applications whi ch initiate requests to server applications across IP networks (the web browser being the most common example) ? Peer-to-peer applications: In this case the end user application acts as both a c lient and a server and can communicate directly with other users across I P networks.Most applications interface at the IP socket layer and won’t be affected whether the transport is IPv4 or IPv6. However, some applications may have been originally written in a way that ties them to IPv4, and these will have to be modified. Some examples include: ? Use of hard coded IPv4 addresses ? IP address data structures that only cater for IPv4 size addresses ? U ser interfaces that display an IP address, or allow an IP address to be e ntered only in IPv4 format. Many applications, including web browsers, already support dual-stack function. Others are subject to the planned timing of upgrades by the application developer.Ideally, applications should be agnostic to the use of IPv4 or IPv6. An ap plication that supports dual-stack will usually give preference to IPv6 if it is available, otherwise it will fall back to using IPv4. Content Providers Most major Internet content providers have yet to move to a dual-stack architecture Most major Internet content providers are yet to make the move to a dual-stack architecture. Some have established specific IPv6-only versions of their site to enable IPv6 access to users who have IPv6 connectivity, and who deliberately choose to use IPv6 (e. . ipv6. google. com and www. v6. facebook. com). Many Internet content providers are beginning to plan for a dual-stack architecture. This was exhibited when many content providers participated in World IPv6 Day (held on 8 June 2011) to trial IPv6 at a global level. 12 W HAT DOES THE TRANSITION MEAN FOR BUSINESS? Multinational enterprises and those that deal with government departments are most likely to be impacted by government mandates. This will drive the need to support IPv6 (e. g. Australi an Government departments implementing IPv6 in 2012).The IPv4 public address run-out will mostly affect businesses in their external connections Public IPv4 address shortages will have minimal impact on Enterprise VPNs due to the prevailing use of private IPv4 addressing. The IPv4 public address run-out will mostly affect businesses in their external connections to consumers and the broader Internet. Each business needs to consider whether to deliver IPv6 based services to consumers who prefer to use IPv6. Businesses must ensure an IPv6 communication path from the enterprise edge to where IPv6 supported applications are hostedConsumers will move to dual-stack CPE configured with an IPv6 address as well as an IPv4 address (either public or private) in order to access both IPv4 and IPv6 content. Businesses that host applications accessible via the Internet will need to cater for consumers with IPv4 or IPv6 public addresses. Since each protocol needs to work endto-end, for businesses t he transition does not end with deployment of dual-stack devices at the enterprise edge. It also requires enterprise network design changes to make the communication path IPv6-capable from the enterprise edge to where IPv6 supported applications are hosted.Businesses face a similar challenge to service providers, such as Telstra, in making the IP addressing transition. Transitioning to IPv6 requires the full ecosystem to move (i. e. network equipment, modems, consumer devices, operating systems, applications, content servers, IT systems, etc). Therefore, the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 will be a large and complex task that will require significant coordination across the full spectrum of players involved in end-to-end IP services. 13 WHAT IS TELSTRA’S APPROACH TO THE TRANSITION? Telstra has been planning for this transition for a number of years.We have a defined transition strategy and a well-advanced IPv6 implementation program. Telstra has prepared for the transition thro ugh a clear strategy and implementation program Our strategy for IPv6 introduction is based on the dual-stack approach, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-exist until the transition to IPv6 is complete. This approach will make sure that the transition occurs with minimal impact on customers – they are not forced to move to IPv6 overnight and can deploy and migrate to IPv6 as they become ready.Telstra is already testing a number of key networks and products to seamlessly introduce IPv6 across our services. Timing for implementation in each product will depend on business drivers and equipment availability (e. g. CPE). It covers services across Telstra Internet Direct (TID), Enterprise networks, Consumer Broadband, Mobiles and Telstra’s global networks. Figure 3: Example of a dual-stack access to the Internet Customer Service Provider LNS DNS Apps, Content & Systems Global Internet Content Providers IPv4 content/apps ADSL Modem Cable CMTS Modem ServiceProvider P oP Domestic Backbone Global Internet Backbones Dual-stack content/apps Wireless IPv6 content/ apps LNS Large installed base of IPv4-only CPE Dual-Stack Outside Service Provider Control Largely installed base of IPv4-only content/apps Outside Service Provider Control Dual-Stack enables a smooth transition, supporting both IPv6 and IPv4 Source: Telstra TID and IP-VPN Services The benefits of dual-stack technology for TID and IP-VPN customers are as follows: ? Continued service availability even as IPv4 addresses run out ? Smooth transition to IPv6 at own pace N ative IPv6 connectivity which provides better performance than IPv6 t unnels ? Essentially unlimited Internet addressing ? Leverages the Telstra Next IP ® network. 14 WHAT IS TELSTRA’S APPROACH TO THE TRANSITION? BigPond Broadband Most consumer broadband customers will be more interested in the content and applications they use, rather than which IP addressing protocol is being used. Nevertheless: ? For many, the trans ition to IPv6 will occur smoothly and transparently as e ach of the components of the end-to-end service moves to dual-stack ( e. g. odems, PCs, content) ? T he industry is expecting that Internet content and applications will be d ual-stack or IPv4-only for a long time to come ? I t is unlikely that any significant content on the Internet will be available t hrough IPv6-only for many years yet. Mobiles including Telstra Mobile Broadband ? I nitial availability of IPv6-capable mobile devices is not expected u ntil 2011/12 ? I n the future there may be developments in self-contained mobile solutions, w hich will also drive IPv6 use (e. g. Telemetry and machine-to-machine s olutions).Applications and Content Telstra applications and content will transition to be offered over IPv6 (to achieve end-to-end IPv6) as well as IPv4. Telstra’s Global Networks Telstra’s global networks operated by Telstra International Group adopted the same business approach as Telstra’s g uideline for the IPv4 to IPv6 transition. Key features include: ? D ual-stack approach to seamlessly support the co-existence of IPv4 and I Pv6 IP routing on global IP networks, including the MPLS-VPN platform and G lobal Internet / IP Transit platform N o hard cut-over for customers and continuing support for customer IPv4 a ddress-based IP routing on Telstra global networks in the coming years ? C ontinue IPv4 and IPv6 support for IP network’s auxiliary services such as D NS services on global Internet platform, looking glass on online port etc ? F rom FY 2011/12, Telstra International Group will start leasing IPv6 addresses to customers needing to connect to Telstra’s global IP networks, with limited I Pv4 Address also available ? Native IPv6 Address IP routing on core network is on the road map ?Telstra is committed to work with global network partners for native I Pv6 traffic peering and/or interconnection for both private and public I P networks. 15 WHAT SHOULD B USINESSES DO NOW? Businesses can begin to prepare for their own IP addressing transition through the following steps: 1. Conduct an IPv6 readiness assessment ? Network hardware ? Servers, PCs (e. g. operating systems) ? Network management and security ? Applications ? IT systems ? Organisational capability (IPv6 skills) ? Understand coexistence implications (performance, resources). 2. Prepare an IP addressing strategy Develop a high-level view of transition approach for the business. 3. Develop an end-to-end program view ? Network, IT, devices, applications, etc ? Processes to minimise impacts ? Communication of the IPv6 strategy within the business ? Maintain network security through the transition to IPv6 ? Work with vendors, system integrators and service providers to define d etail and align timings (e. g. link hardware upgrades to lifecycle p rocesses to minimise costs) ? Analyse transition costs and develop a transition budget. 4. Formulate an Implementation Plan ? Identify d ependencies and major milestones Use phased approach based on priorities and timings. 5. Progress Implementation ? Work in close coordination and consultation with network provider ? Telstra commits to providing timely information and updates on its program o f work to assist customers, suppliers and others in the industry to manage t heir transition. 16 WHAT SHOULD BUSINESSES DO NOW? Leverage our Experience and Best Practice Telstra can assist and support customers in their transition to IPv6 through our Professional Services and Consulting Services. The services we provide include: ? Consulting: Planning consultation, including business level investigation and analysis – Conduct a Communications Strategy plan update – Readiness assessments and check lists – Total ecosystem roadmap development (Not necessarily Telstra specific) – Vendor management and CPE – VoIP / other providers / web sites, etc ? Design and Architecture: – Network design – CPE programming remote or onsite (future) ? Project Management: – Transition planning – Seamless transition – Staged transition planning process, achieved via: – Workshops – Customised design – Implementation planning Telstra can provide overall project management to guide a customer t hrough the transition process. 17 CONCLUSION The transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is a known issue which the industry will have to manage over the coming years. The transition will take time as it will require IPv6 to be supported by an end-to-end industry ecosystem including CPE, modems/home gateways, networks, systems (OSS/BSS, tools), content and applications. Telstra has been planning for this transition for a number of years. We have a defined transition strategy and a well-advanced IPv6 implementation program.Our strategy for IPv6 introduction is based on the dual-stack approach, allowing both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses to co-exist until the transition to IPv6 is complete. This approach will make sure that the transition occurs with minimal impact on customers – customers are not forced to move to IPv6 overnight and can deploy and migrate to IPv6 as they become ready. Telstra is already testing a number of key networks and products to seamlessly introduce IPv6. Businesses face a similar challenge to service providers in undertaking a complex transition of their IP ecosystem without impacting services.It is advisable that businesses start preparing their IPv4 to IPv6 transition strategies. Telstra will provide timely information and updates on our program of work to assist customers, suppliers and others in the industry to manage their transition. 18 APPENDIX 1 – IP ADDRESSING IP Address Header Formats Table1 0 16 Ver HL TOS Total Length Identification TTL 32 Flag Protocol Fragmet Offset Header Checksum Source Address Destination Address Options Padding IPv4 Header 0 16 Ver 32 Traf. Class Flow Label Payload Length Nx t Hdr Hop Limit Source Address Destination AddressIPv6 Header Address Ranges Both IPv6 and IPv4 address ranges are often referred to in CIDR (Classless InterDomain Routing) notation, indicating how many of the bits in the range are used to identify the network prefix while the remaining bits identify subnets and hosts. For example, in 62. 0. 0. 0/8 or (62/8), the ‘/8’ indicates that the first 8 bits in the range are used for the common prefix and the remaining 24 bits are used for the host address within that network. 19 APPENDIX 1 – IP ADDRESSING Individual Addresses and Notation Table2 Address FamilyWritten as Example IPv4 Dotted Decimal Notation 144. 135. 19. 10 (four decimal ranges written to represent each byte of address space) IPv6 Hexadecimal notation (eight hexadecimal ranges written to represent two bytes, separated by colons) IPv6 (short-hand) Hexadecimal notation 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000: 8a2e:0370:7334 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334 (eight hexadecima l ranges with zeros removed) Private Addressing In IPv4, four specific address ranges were allocated for use in private networks (e. g. within an enterprise or home). The ranges are: ? 10. 0. 0. /8 — quite often used by large enterprise networks or internally by ISPs ? 172. 16. 0. 0/12 — often used to number enterprise or ISP backbone networks ? 192. 168. 0. 0/16 — often used in small office/home office (SOHO) applications ? 169. 254. 0. 0/24 — used for link-local applications. These private addresses have no meaning on the public Internet. If external connectivity is required by nodes addressed privately, Network Address Translation (NAT) is used to translate the first three of these address ranges into public addresses when accessing the broader Internet.IPv6 also has a range of addresses identified for local use known as the Unique Local Address range FC00::/7 (defined by RFC4193). In IPv4, when an interface is assigned a link-local address, we assume that the device is only connected to a local network. However, the practice of assigning multiple identifiers to interfaces is expected in IPv6 and therefore, all interfaces maintain a link-local address and additional IPv6 addresses. Table 3: Unique Local Address Range 0 78 FC00::/7 1 48 Global ID 64 Site Subnets Interface Identifier With regard to NAT, industry IPv6 addressing practices are still developing.Although there is a hope that significant use of IPv6 to IPv6 network address translation will be avoided, it is not yet clear as to whether enterprises will use public IPv6 space (derived from a registry), provider IPv6 space (granted from an ISP), or a local addressing scheme together with IPv6 NAT. 20 REFERENCES I The remaining allocations by the Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre are now rationed to a maximum of 1024 addresses per member under their latest policies – see â€Å"Policies for IPv4 address space management in the Asia Pacific region†, http:// www. apnic. et/policy/add-manage-policy. II â€Å"IPv4 Address Report† http://ipv4. potaroo. net has the latest exhaustion estimates of the other regional registries 1 Global IPv6 Strategies – From Business Analysis to Operational Planning by Patrick Grossetete, Ciprian Popoviclu, Fred Wettling, Cisco Press, June 2008 2 Deploying IPv6 Networks by Ciprian Popoviclu, Patrick Grossetete, Eric LeviAbegnoli, Cisco Press, February 2006 21 Why Telstra? Telstra provides network services and solutions to more than 200 of the world’s top 500 companies. They rely on us to do business across 240 countries nd territories and to enable greater productivity, efficiency and growth. Telstra solutions offer the best of all worlds – skilled people and a rich portfolio of services delivered on our world-class Telstra Next IP ® network and Next G ® network. To ensure reliable performance, they’re monitored and maintained from our dedicated centres using advanced ma nagement and operational systems. And they’re backed by Telstra Enterprise-grade Customer Service ® and one of Australia’s largest and most qualified field and technical workforce. IF YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS P LEASE CONTACT YOURT ELSTRA ACCOUNT EXECUTIVE V ISIT T ELSTRA. COM/ENTERPRISE/IPV6 C ALL 1 300 TELSTRA  © 2011 Telstra Corporation Limited. All rights reserved. This work is copyright. The Copyright Act 1968 permits fair dealing for study, research, news reporting, criticism or review. Selected passages, tables or diagrams may be reproduced for such purposes provided acknowledgement of the source is included. Permission for more extensive reproduction must be obtained from Telstra. â„ ¢ Trade mark of Telstra Corporation Limited.  ® Registered trademark of Telstra Corporation Limited ABN 33 051 775 556.

Encryptions Essay

In this report I have discussed that the encryption technology is necessary for citizens to protect their privacy and security when using computer networks. Otherwise, medical records, credit card numbers, trade secrets, as well as personal communications relayed over computer networks are not safe from prying eyes. Also I have presented an arguments in favor of encryption that it offers a method of denying access to adversaries, improves security by protecting against spoofing, offers a device for recovering costs plus imposing fees and protects private DGPS providers from government competition. Furthermore I have also explained some arguments against encryption that to put into practice it would potentially weaken U. S. leadership in GPS by encouraging international augmentations that lacked encryption, need a multifaceted key management infrastructure, need a major redesign and development endeavor, causing delays and escalating costs to the government, make innovative safety risks if the key management system failed, mainly in an emergency. Thus the transaction costs imposed by encryption would have to be balanced against the benefits expected. Introduction Encryption software enciphers data sent over computer networks, in order that merely people with special information for instance a secret key can read the plaintext of the message. The key is a string of numbers. The longer the string, the harder it is to break. In January 2000 the Department of Commerce announced new encryption export policy. Under the new system, U. S. companies may export any encryption product around the world to private-sector end users or commercial firms after a one-time technical review. Encryption products that the Bureau of Export Administration (BXA) determines fall into the category of â€Å"retail encryption commodities and software† can be exported to anyone. In determining which products fit the meaning, the BXA will think about the product’s function, sales volume, plus distribution methods. Publicly available source code may be exported with no technical review. The relaxation of export controls on products planned for e-commerce merchants, financial institutions, and others is a step in the right direction. However problems remain. First, the â€Å"publicly available† or â€Å"sales volume† tests doom U. S. companies to lag behind foreign cryptographers in offering innovative encryption products. No pioneer product is so far â€Å"publicly available† or has a large sales volume. The revised encryption rules therefore still permit foreign cryptographers to take the lead in developing new crypto products. Second, any encryption products have to be submitted for a technical review before release. This means that encryption will not be built into most mass-market products. For instance, it would make sense to construct an encryption option into a standard e-mail program. However, building encryption into an e-mail program would mean that the e-mail program could not be exported without a long, uncertain technical review. To stay away from the technical review, companies are probable to leave out the encryption function. Network security will carry on to suffer for the reason that encryption will not be built into mass-market products like e-mail or word processing programs. Third, the condition that encryption products be submitted for review before release violates the First Amendment. In April 2000 the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals established that encryption source code is speech protected by the First Amendment. The obligation that encryption products be reviewed prior to release is a â€Å"prior restraint† on speech. Those problems with encryption export controls are extensively recognized. The alternatives to the controls, though, have barely been examined, with the exception of â€Å"key escrow,† or â€Å"key recovery. † Mainly, it is wrong to bar anyone from using nonescrow encryption to communicate when he has done nothing wrong. Demands for obligatory key escrow constitute an unparalleled power grab on the part of law enforcement officials. The police have always had the right, restricted by the Fourth Amendment, to intercept private communications and read them, if they could. The police have never had the right to demand that people change the language in which they communicate to make themselves easier to understand. There are further alternatives to encryption regulations for law enforcement. They comprise increased use of informants and other surveillance technologies for instance the planting of physical bugs or devices such as Tempest, which allows law enforcement to read the screen of a computer through walls or doors. Encryption export controls must be lifted without qualification. GPS-related cryptographic A GPS-related cryptographic system can be used for two reasons: denial of the signal to unauthorized users, as well as protection of the message itself to, prevent alterations or the creation of a substitute message. The former makes a vital portion of the message unavailable to non-authorized users. In military schemes preservation of a one-sided advantage may be of interest; in a commercial setting the capability to eliminate nonpaying users is essential to collect revenue. Authenticating the message through use of an encrypted signature block that may both authenticate the sender of the message and confirm the contents is consistent with application in the civil government sector, where making sure integrity of the message is significant. In a DGPS context, encryption might be inserted at one of several points in the transmission of the signal to the user. Encryption may defend the uplink in a satellite relay, the original messages to the satellite, also the command functions on the satellite. Or encryption might protect the signature region of a message that points out its authenticity and the integrity of the main message payload. A third option might be to encrypt the complete message. Other variants comprise encrypting merely selective portions of the message. Throughout the hearing, there was disagreement over how multifaceted the key management infrastructure needed to be. The underlying policy question was how protected and dependable the encryption must be. As Dr. Denning put it, â€Å"in any encryption, something must remain secret. † (Bruce Schnier, 1994). For some proprietary algorithms, no keys need to be distributed, and this is generally adequate for commercial systems for instance cable TV and the DGPS providers. If an open algorithm is used, keys and a related key management system are required to gain international acceptance. The desired future of electronic, over-the-air rekeying is not yet here. In the case of military systems, both keys as well as classified algorithms are used. There are a number of technical approaches that might be taken to encrypting the signals for local- and wide-area DGPS applications using private-key and Public-key encryption schemes. A few schemes involve over-the-air â€Å"rekeying† devices to enable/disable the capability of specific units to receive messages. Other schemes involve comparatively simple authentication mechanisms that would not have to be tied to individual units and would depend on the capability to avert alteration or forging of a message. As one would think, trying to deny signals to end-users is an involved process from the point of view of managing keys and of keeping track of which unit belongs to which person or group. Nonetheless, if the goal is to permit control of the use of a signal rather than, say, prevention of reception of the signal by cutting of transmissions in a given area, then one is forced to these more elaborate schemes. (Simon Garfinkel, 1995) The objective of encryption must be decided before selecting a particular approach. If the main goal is authenticating the message and preventing false messages, there is no need to go to the expense and intricacy of a system that refutes the fundamental message by encrypting the entire message stream. If encrypting the stream in the future is desired, it may be appropriate to use a more complicated scheme as long as the possible future benefits are expected to offset related costs and possible opposition. The intricacy of denial-focused approaches plus the apparition of selectively controlling the signal will make incentives for alternative standards and systems outside of U. S. control.

Healthcare and the biopsychosocial and biomedical models essays

Healthcare and the biopsychosocial and biomedical models essays Discuss why a modern healthcare system should adopt a biopsychosocial rather than a biomedical approach The biomedical approach is the dominant model in medicine today and it has guided the thinking of most health practitioners for hundreds of years (Taylor,1986). The biomedical model only acknowledges a biological explanation for illness. Biological explanations are very important but they form an incomplete picture of the causes of illness. The other causes of illness are acknowledged in the biopsychosocial model. The term was first used by Engel in 1977 in his critique of biomedicine published in Science (Murray, 2004). As the name implies this model uses psychological and social explanations as well as biological ones to provide a full picture of health and illness. The biomedical model has dominated how health and illness have been viewed for the last century (Whitman, 1999). The biomedical model is reductionist because it only defines illness in terms of biological processes and does not consider the psychological and social factors (Taylor, 1995 cited in Whitman, 1999). Many books in health psychology use the analogy of a mechanic repairing a car. He or she would diagnose a problem and then carry out repairs accordingly. The biomedical approach looks for the cause of a disorder rather than looking at a range of contributory factors. The biomedical model also does not acknowledge the interaction between the mind and the body. Another hallmark of the biomedical model is its emphasis on illness and its development rather than the promotion of health (Banyard, 1996). There have been certain changes that have led to dissatisfaction with the biomedical model. Firstly at the turn of the last century the diseases that were the main killers were single cause infections. In 1900 the three most common causes of death were influenza and pneumonia, tuberculosis and gastro-enteritis. All these are caused by micro-org...

First Electric Toaster, Pop-Up Toast, and Sliced Bread

First Electric Toaster, Pop-Up Toast, and Sliced Bread Toasting began as a method of prolonging the life of bread. It  was initially toasted over open fires with tools to hold it in place until it was properly browned. Toasting  was a very common activity in Roman times; tostum is the Latin word for scorching or burning. As the Romans traveled throughout Europe vanquishing their foes in early times, it’s said that they took their toasted bread right along with them. The British developed a fondness for the Romans toast and introduced it in the Americas when they crossed the ocean. The First Electric Toasters The first electric toaster was invented in 1893 by Alan MacMasters in Scotland. He called the device the â€Å"Eclipse Toaster,† and it was manufactured and marketed by the Crompton Company. This early toaster was reinvented in 1909 in the U.S. when Frank Shailor patented his idea for the â€Å"D-12† toaster. General Electric ran with the idea and introduced it for use in the home. Unfortunately, it only toasted one side of the bread at a time and it required that someone stand by to manually turn it off when the toast looked done. Westinghouse followed with its own version of a toaster in 1914, and the Copeman Electric Stove Company added an â€Å"automatic bread turner† to its toaster in 1915. Charles Strite invented the modern timed pop-up toaster in 1919. Today, the toaster is the most common household appliance although it’s only  been in existence in the U.S. a little over 100 years. An unusual online museum is dedicated to the toaster, with lots of photos and historical information. Otto Frederick Rohwedder and Sliced Bread Otto Frederick Rohwedder invented the bread slicer. He first began working on it in 1912 when he came up with the idea of a device that would hold the slices together with hat pins. This was not a resounding success. In 1928, he went on to design a machine that sliced and wrapped the bread to prevent it from going stale. The Chillicothe Baking Company of Chillicothe, Missouri started selling Kleen Maid Sliced Bread on July 7, 1928, possibly the first sliced bread sold commercially. Pre-sliced bread was further popularized by Wonder Bread in 1930, helping to spread the toasters popularity even further. The Sandwich Long before Rohwedder figured out how to efficiently slice bread and before Shailor patented the first American toaster, John Montagu, the 4th Earl of Sandwich, originated the name â€Å"sandwich† in the 18th century. Montagu was a British politician who served as secretary of state and first lord of the Admiralty. He presided at the Admiralty during the British defeats of the American Revolution, and he was notoriously unpopular for his charges of obscenity against John Wilkes.  He loved to eat beef between slices of bread. His  sandwich allowed the Earl to leave one hand free for card playing.  Hawaiis Sandwich Islands are rumored to have been named after him by Captain James Cook in 1778.

An In-Depth Review of Star Reading Assessment Program

An In-Depth Review of Star Reading Assessment Program Star Reading is an online assessment program developed by Renaissance Learning for students typically in grades K-12. The program uses a combination of the cloze method and traditional reading comprehension passages to assess forty-six reading skills across eleven domains. The program is used to determine a student’s overall reading level as well as identify a students individual strengths and weaknesses. The program is designed to provide teachers with individual student data, quickly and accurately. It typically takes a student 10–15 minutes to complete an assessment, and reports are available immediately upon completion. The assessment consists of approximately thirty questions. Students are tested on foundational reading skills, literature components, reading informational text, and language. Students have one minute to answer each question before the program automatically moves them to the next question. The program is adaptive, so the difficulty will increase or decrease based on how a student performs. Features of Star Reading It is easy to set up and use. Star Reading is a Renaissance Learning program. This is important because if you have Accelerated Reader, Accelerated Math, or any of the other Star assessments, you only have to do the set up one time. Adding students and building classes is quick and easy. You can add a class of about twenty students and have them ready to be assessed in about 15 minutes.It correlates with Accelerated Reader. Many schools across the country use Accelerated Reader. To maximize the effect of Accelerated Reader, students should be limited to books that correlate to their specific Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Star Reading provides teachers with each student’s individual ZPD that can then be entered into the Accelerated Reader program to limit students to books that will not be too easy or too difficult for them to read.It is easy for students to use. The interface is plain and straightforward. This minimizes the chances for a student to be distracted. Student s have two choices when answering the multiple-choice-style questions. They can use their mouse and click on the correct choice, or they can use the A, B, C, D keys that correlate to the correct answer. Students are not locked into their answer until they click next or push the Enter key. Each question is on a one-minute timer. When a student has fifteen seconds remaining, a small clock will begin to flash at the top of the screen, letting them know that time is about to expire for that question. It provides teachers with a tool to easily screen and progress monitor students who need reading intervention. Star Reading comes with a screening and progress monitor tool that allows teachers to set goals and monitor a student’s progress as they move throughout the year. This easy-to-use feature allows teachers to quickly and accurately decide whether they need to change their approach with a particular student or continue doing what they are doing.It has an adaptable assessment bank. The program has an extensive assessment bank that allows students to be assessed multiple times without seeing the same question. In addition, the program adapts to the student as they answer questions. If a student is performing well, then the questions will increasingly become more difficult. If they are struggling, the questions will become easier. The program will eventually zero in on the student’s correct level. Useful Reports Star Reading is designed to provide teachers with useful information that will drive their instructional practices. It provides teachers with several useful reports designed to assist in targeting which students need intervention and what areas they need assistance in. Here are four key reports available through the program and a brief explanation of each: Diagnostic: This report provides the most information about an individual student. It offers information such as the student’s grade equivalent, percentile rank, estimated oral reading fluency, scaled score, instructional reading level, and zone of proximal development. It also provides tips to maximize that individual’s reading growth.Growth: This report shows the growth of a group of students over a specific period of time. This period of time is customizable from a few weeks to months, to even growth over the course of several years.Screening: This report provides teachers with a graph that details whether they are above or below their benchmark as they are assessed throughout the year. This report is useful because if students are falling below the mark, then the teacher needs to change their approach ​with that student.Summary: This report provides teachers with whole group test results for a specific test date or range. This is very useful for comparing mul tiple students at one time. Relevant Terminology Scaled Score (SS)  - The scaled score is figured based on the difficulty of the questions as well of the number of questions that were correct. Star Reading uses a scale range of 0–1400. This score can be used to compare students to each other as well as themselves over time.Percentile Rank (PR) - The percentile rank allows students to be compared to other students nationally that are in the same grade. For example, a student who scores in the 77th percentile scores better than 76% of students in their grade but lower than 23% of students in their grade.Grade Equivalent (GE) - The grade equivalent represents how a student performs compared to other students nationally. For example, a fifth-grade student who scores a grade equivalent of 8.3 scores as well as a student who is in the eighth grade and third month.Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - This is the range of readability which a student should be required to select books. Reading in this range provides students with t he optimal opportunity to maximize reading growth. Books at this level are not too easy or too difficult for the student to read. ATOS  - A readability formula that uses average sentence length, average word length, vocabulary grade level, and the number of words to calculate the overall difficulty of a book. Overall Star Reading is a very good reading assessment program, especially if you already use the Accelerated Reader program. Its best features are that it is quick and easy to use for teachers and students, and reports can be generated in seconds. The assessment does rely too much on cloze reading passages. A truly accurate reading assessment would use a more balanced and comprehensive approach. However, Star is a great quick screening tool to identify struggling readers or individual reading strengths. There are better assessments available in terms of in-depth diagnostic assessments, but Star reading will give you a quick snapshot of where a student is at any given point.  Overall, we give this program 3.5 out of 5 stars, primarily because the assessment itself isn’t broad enough and there are times where consistency and accuracy are of concern.

MRP3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

MRP3 - Assignment Example Generally, teachers emerge more innovative thus their general approach towards these reforms is more professional due to their reserved space in the system that recognizes and develops them for better future results thus assuring a strong education system. People undertaking education reforms should embrace a scientific and technological view. They ought to understand that reforms incline more towards people it is directed to rather than the already set processes or policies (Richard and Gregg). Their respective experience in the education field reinforces their approaches towards the whole question of reforms. This cluster of teachers recognize the need to reward efforts with a view to exploring innovative possibilities and also appreciating ideas that may result from trying freshly developed ideas something that may be realized time to time over the years. On the other hand other interested parties to this course may ultimately lack the expertise needed to spearhead these reforms (Raymond). With a view to making the entire process a success, teachers have embraced technological approaches due to their expertise and experience and are also able to observe and conceptualize the results achieved into reasonable theories. The attitude of the teachers is then estimated to enable someone to measure their threshold and also whether they attain the desired level. These are cross examined alongside some theories where they undergo experimentation to make conclusions and ultimate decisions on a topic. All these attitudes exhibited by teachers differ to a greater extent from their counter parts in other fields apart from teaching. Therefore, as the essay argues school teachers are better placed to handle reform agendas because they have an upper hand and their positive

Case study about Starbucks (marketing) Assignment

Case study about Starbucks (marketing) - Assignment Example This report will be solely based on the Starbucks case study and will focus on how the specialty coffee player can better survive and survive in the industry. In order to do this, this paper will look at the historical performance of the company, noting the company's strategies in response to its external market. The first portion will provide an account on how Starbucks has prospered and gained wide success in the early 1990s. Next, this report will look at the changes which have transpired in Starbucks market which significantly differentiates it from the 1990s. Through this analysis, this paper will evaluate why the customer satisfaction rating of the specialty coffee retailer declined. Lastly, Starbucks problems will be identified, stressing on how they can be reconciled and remedied. The success of Starbucks in early 1990s has been well documented. The main idea of its "founder" Schultz is to create a third place for the Americans to stay. It should be noted that during that time, Americans are confined to only two destinations-work and home. Schultz then wanted to create a place where the people can relax and enjoy themselves alone or with other people. This business concept has been instrumental in the success of the business organization in the early 1990s. Schultz did not just envision a retail shop which specializes in selling coffee but in creating the proper "ambiance" and strategies in order to convey the "Starbucks experience." Starbucks has operated in a three pronged strategy in order to capture its target market. First, the company concentrates in offering the best coffee in the US by sourcing its coffee beans from Africa, South America, and Asia Pacific. In order to ensure that it is distributing the highest quality coffee beans, Starbucks takes control as much of its supply chain as possible. This means working directly with the growers, supervising the roasting process, and controlling the distribution process worldwide. Secondly, Starbucks have focused on delivering excellent customer service to complement its products. It should be noted that the company's baristas are well trained in entertaining and dealing with the customers. The company believes that the Starbucks experience is not just a matter of delivering quality coffee products but excellent customer service. Thirdly, the specialty coffee retailer also invests in completing the experience by creating the appropriate ambiance. Starbucks has created an atmosphere which is inviting for its customers. In the words of Day, "People come for the coffee but the ambiance is what makes them want to stay." Consistent with what is emphasized in the course, it can be seen that the product offered by Starbucks is comprised of a tangible component, intangible component, and a symbol component. The tangible component, the substance, is addressed by Starbucks' quest in producing and delivering the highest quality coffee in its stores. As discussed above, it becomes an essential component of the value proposition and strategy of the company. The second component, which is service, is exemplified by the company's pursuit in offering

Week7 assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week7 - Assignment Example In the process, those who should encourage an alcoholic to get help become part of the hindrance to seeking help. Enabling is the other practice that delays recovery from alcoholism. It refers to a protective behavior in which persons close to alcoholics protect them from experiencing the full consequences of their actions; instead, allowing them to continue drinking in the knowledge that someone is looking out for them. Overcoming enabling is the first step to treating alcoholism. An alcoholic should be prepared to meet the problem personally. Consider a situation where an alcoholic spends money intended for food and paying bills on alcohol. Instead of taking money meant for other purposes to do buy food, the spouse may decide to take the children to a relative’s place for a week and let the alcoholic come to a home without food, lights and water for that period. Only then can such an alcoholic understand and appreciate the depth of the problem. From the delays caused by enabling and denial, it is clear that social factors affect the tendency of a person to abuse substances. Use of high potency marijuana has social impact on society amongst which is the link between marijuana use and violent crime. Studies indicate that crime and drug use occur simultaneously. Friends that encourage others to use marijuana are among the main social factors of high-potency marijuana usage (Stevenson, 2013). Hence, peer pressure and the urge to fit in are rather critical social issues in high potency marijuana use. Second, use of high potency marijuana has adverse social effects on the users; including negative effects on their mind, low esteem, possible addiction and progression to other drugs and obesity (Stevenson, 2013). All these effects negatively affect the social functioning of an individual such as making and maintaining

The role of the spectator Thesis Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

The role of the spectator - Thesis Proposal Example Apparently, the passive spectator is a quite new state of art experience, but however has become quite widespread that it is the status quo for the majority of art performances in the West. The passive spectator actually only emerge in the nineteenth century, as art performances initiated its separation into entertainment and artistic forms. Professionals and scholars such as Wagner, with he and Henry Irving with their murky theater, and his ‘mystic chasm’, began several of the numerous initiatives in the nineteenth century that concretely detached the spectator from the performance and dampened ‘spectatorial acts of ownership or displeasure’, or even loud agreement. This projection of the passive spectator has become quite recognized that in a 1991 article in New York Times on the ill behaviors of theatre spectators, the journalist Alex Witchel did not include the rationale underlying his request for courteousness or admit that genuinely good theatre usually moves or stirs in its audiences just the contrary of the passive silence he wanted. This courteous, overwhelmed response has become the standard. However, we are at a decisive period in performance studies in which we have to perceive contemporary performance beyond the very same borders from which it is breaking out. This study argues that it is wholly impossible to observe and study contemporary performance while remaining grounded on the perspective as the traditional audience. Not merely do we have to keep on creating and experimenting new performance tactics, but we also have to move our focus to ‘response strategies’, to directly reconstruct the role of the spectator as a contemporary audience. I request the contemporary audience to become engaged in a new form of agreement with the creators of new performance. Through this study, I request this contemporary audience for several things: to take

Death Sentence or Capital Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Death Sentence or Capital Punishment - Essay Example After watching the film, Dead Man Walking and reading some of Sister Helen Prejean, I believe that the mode of punishment is equally inhumane and has no place in the modern society as the discussion below portrays. The film introduces Mathew Poncelet, who has been in prison for six years as he awaits execution by lethal injection for killing a couple. His life and experiences while on death row coupled with the actual execution portray the inhumane nature of the crime. Firstly, capital punishment is a form of retribution. Killing Poncelet for killing the couple is a form of vengeance engineered by the state. The process devalues human life and may not always have any moral benefits to the society. People do not learn that killing is a vice since the state kills such offenders. Instead, the punishment shows the state using its laws to carry out an execution of its citizens. Furthermore, vengeance does not always gratify the families of the victims who continue living with the loss. Ad ditionally, the process is traumatizing. Just as shown in the film, the process of killing a convict is slow and tedious. The convicts stay on death row for years as they await their execution. Mathew Poncelet in the film stays in prison for six years as he awaits the process. The courts in the United States simply sentence a convict to death but never specify the date of the actual execution. Such court rulings are the height of torture and inhumane treatment of the convicts. Poncelet, for example, lives every day anticipating the execution. Six years is always a sufficient punishment for some other crimes in the country. As such, the process is like double punishment since the convicts live in solitary for long. Within the period, some lose their sanity as they anticipate the penalty. Death penalty prolongs the agony of both the victims’ families and that of the convict. Victims deserve effective and equally timely justice.

The Different Types of New Governments Assignment

The Different Types of New Governments - Assignment Example Choosing the best possible style for a given nation is no small task. We live in a world of extreme diversity. We have ethnic, cultural, racial, philosophical, ideological, and religious diversity all around us in the modern world. In order to meet the needs of a modern diverse world is to apply a new style of government altogether; it would be more a hybridization of the most beneficial elements of existing styles to form something new, sustainable, and more ethical in a diverse world. Present government issues involving political parties that refuse to agree upon anything and a President that refuses to compromise on his policies continually stagnate and stalemate the issues of this country. Many of the American people have grown more than tired, frustrated, and aggravated by the present government; reforms, changes, and innovations are definitely in store. The best suggestion would be a combination of several different approaches; A Constitutional Commonwealth Confederacy might be feasible. In a Constitutional Government is operated with an agreed upon a document, like the Constitution, that sets down the most basic and fundamental principles of the society they are hoping to govern. It determines, both, the powers and limitation of any government entity. A Commonwealth Government is a political entity that was founded on the idea of a unifying â€Å"compact,† which represents the people’s best interests for the common good. In this new government, the fusing of the Constitution form with the Commonwealth reliance on a â€Å"compact† is rather smooth. Finally, a Confederacy or Confederation is a union between the states and provinces that allows for a central government to exist but heavily limits the powers of that government (Melina, 2011). This grants greater powers to individual areas, as opposed to being overruled by a central government. This would likely create a more fair, organized, and balanced government structure that would benefit a society of diversity in ideas, beliefs, and religions.  

Death Sentence or Capital Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Death Sentence or Capital Punishment - Essay Example After watching the film, Dead Man Walking and reading some of Sister Helen Prejean, I believe that the mode of punishment is equally inhumane and has no place in the modern society as the discussion below portrays. The film introduces Mathew Poncelet, who has been in prison for six years as he awaits execution by lethal injection for killing a couple. His life and experiences while on death row coupled with the actual execution portray the inhumane nature of the crime. Firstly, capital punishment is a form of retribution. Killing Poncelet for killing the couple is a form of vengeance engineered by the state. The process devalues human life and may not always have any moral benefits to the society. People do not learn that killing is a vice since the state kills such offenders. Instead, the punishment shows the state using its laws to carry out an execution of its citizens. Furthermore, vengeance does not always gratify the families of the victims who continue living with the loss. Ad ditionally, the process is traumatizing. Just as shown in the film, the process of killing a convict is slow and tedious. The convicts stay on death row for years as they await their execution. Mathew Poncelet in the film stays in prison for six years as he awaits the process. The courts in the United States simply sentence a convict to death but never specify the date of the actual execution. Such court rulings are the height of torture and inhumane treatment of the convicts. Poncelet, for example, lives every day anticipating the execution. Six years is always a sufficient punishment for some other crimes in the country. As such, the process is like double punishment since the convicts live in solitary for long. Within the period, some lose their sanity as they anticipate the penalty. Death penalty prolongs the agony of both the victims’ families and that of the convict. Victims deserve effective and equally timely justice.

History Important Terms Essay Example for Free

History Important Terms Essay Bacon’s Rebellion-1676 Nathaniel Bacon and other western Virginia settlers were angry at Virginia Governor Berkley for trying to appease the Doeg Indians after the Doegs attacked the western settlements. The frontiersmen formed an army, with Bacon as its leader, which defeated the Indians and then marched on Jamestown and burned the city. The rebellion ended suddenly when Bacon died of an illness. John Winthrop-He became the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay colony, and served in that capacity from 1630 through 1649. A Puritan with strong religious beliefs. He opposed total democracy, believing the colony was best governed by a small group of skillful leaders. He helped organize the New England Confederation in 1643 and served as its first president. He believed in the creation of a City on a Hill and that they would be an example to the world. Separatists- Non-separatists (which included the Puritans) believed that the Church of England could be purified through reforms. Separatists (which included the Pilgrims) believed that the Church of England could not be reformed and that it was corrupt so started their own congregations. Roger Williams-Rhode Island. He left the Massachusetts colony and purchased the land from a neighboring Indian tribe to found the colony of Rhode Island. Rhode Island was the only colony at that time to offer complete religious freedom. He was an antinomian. He was exiled from Massachusetts because of his beliefs. He believed you couldn’t take land from Native Americans because they could be saved, Anglican Church is too corrupt, separation of church and state and religious toleration, you don’t have to listen to the bible or minister if you are already predetermined. Founder of Rhode Island. Anne Hutchinson-She preached the idea that God communicated directly to individuals instead of through the church elders. She was forced to leave Massachusetts in 1637. Her followers (the Antinomians) founded the colony of New Hampshire in 1639. She allied with merchants. Said the bible was wrong. Visible saints- people who were godly Christians and who went to heaven when they died. Puritans believed that they were the saints of the world. Half-Way Covenant- The Half-way Covenant applied to those members of the Puritan colonies who were the children of church members, but who hadn’t achieved grace themselves. The covenant allowed them to participate in some church affairs. Dominion of New England- 1686 The British government combined the colonies of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Connecticut into a single province headed by a royal governor (Andros). The Dominion ended in 1692, when the colonists revolted and drove out Governor Andros. An example that Britain was beginning to lose control of New England. Penns Holy Experiment- William Penn’s term for the government of Pennsylvania, which was supposed to serve everyone and provide freedom for all. He was a Quaker. He was most likely gay so he wasn’t accepted by puritans but in Pennsylvania he could be free and safe because they believed that they are the same as everyone else. Nathaniel Bacon- Virginian planter who organized a militia of 500, attacked and killed Indians because some tribes caused planters problems. Then he marched the militia into Jamestown and burned it. House of Burgesses-1619 The Virginia House of Burgesses formed the first legislative body in colonial America. Later other colonies would adopt houses of burgesses. Indentured servants- People who could not afford passage to the colonies could become indentured servants. Another person would pay their passage, and in exchange, the indentured servant would serve that person for a set length of time (usually seven years) and then would be free. Headright- Headrights were parcels of land consisting of about 50 acres which were given to colonists who brought indentured servants into America. They were used by the Virginia Company to attract more colonists middle passage passage from the African west coast to the West Indies Enlightenment-A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700s and spread to the colonies. It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God. It is believed that it influenced the American Revolution. Great Awakening- Puritanism had declined by the 1730s, and people were upset about the decline in religious piety. The Great Awakening was a sudden outbreak of religious fervor that swept through the colonies. One of the first events to unify the colonies. It believed in individualism and New Birth. Believed to influence American Revolution. George Whitefield- George Whitefield, an Anglican minister, led numerous revivals and preached a theology â€Å"scaled down to the comprehension of twelve-year-olds.† While not denying the doctrine of predestination, he preached a God responsive to good intentions. He believed in the concept of New Birth. Jonathan Edwards- Jonathan Edwards was the most famous native-born revivalist. In 1727 he â€Å"inherited† his grandfather’s pulpit in Northampton, Massachusetts, and dramatized hell’s fire and brimstone from the pulpit. Eventually in 1749 his parishioners voted to dismiss him. By the 1750s, the Great Awakening, the first truly national event in American history, had run its course. Although it had caused divisions, it also fostered religious toleration. His most famous work is â€Å"Sinners†. He believed one could become morally perfect. Mercantilism-Navigation Acts- the most important legislature that Britain passed on colonies. Says that all goods shipped on vessels built in UK, Raw material to UK only in UK ships, no manufacturing in colonies, 75% UK crews, all goods to other countries stop in UK for unloading. Congregationalism- Puritan system. Says that church is center of town and the meeting house. Congregation elects minister. Pilgrims Mayflower Compact- 1620 The first agreement for self-government in America. It was signed by the 41 men on the Mayflower and set up a government for the Plymouth colony. It said that all people must adhere to majority rule, allegiance to king and church is the center of their town. Triangle Trade- The backbone of New England’s economy during the colonial period. Ships from New England sailed first to Africa, exchanging New England rum for slaves. The slaves were shipped from Africa to the Caribbean (this was known as the Middle Passage, when many slaves died on the ships). In the Caribbean, the slaves were traded for sugar and molasses. Then the ships returned to New England, where the molasses were used to make rum. Great Migration- Many Puritans emigrated from England to America in the 1630s and 1640s. During this time, the population of the Massachusetts Bay colony grew to ten times its earlier population. King Philips War- 1675 A series of battles in New Hampshire between the colonists and the Wompanowogs, led by a chief known as King Philip. The war was started when the Massachusetts government tried to assert court jurisdiction over the local Indians. The colonists won with the help of the Mohawks, and this victory opened up additional Indian lands for expansion. Covenant of Grace- Puritan teachings emphasized the biblical covenants: God’s covenants with Adam and with Noah, the covenant of grace between God and man through Christ. John Smith-Helped found and govern Jamestown. His leadership and strict discipline helped the Virginia colony get through the difficult first winter. Virginia Company-Virginia was formed by the Virginia Company as a profit-earning venture. Starvation was the major problem; about 90% of the colonists died the first year, many of the survivors left, and the company had trouble attracting new colonists. They offered private land ownership in the colony to attract settlers, but the Virginia Company eventually went bankrupt and the colony went to the crown. Virginia did not become a successful colony until the colonists started raising and exporting tobacco. William Berkeley- the royal governor, Sir William Berkeley of Virginia. He was forced by Bacon to legitimize his power in order to take control of Jamestown and fight against Indians. seasoning time- period of time when new colonists became accustomed to the weather and hygiene conditions in the colony Toleration Act of 1649- 1649 Ordered by Lord Baltimore after a Protestant was made governor of Maryland at the demand of the colonys large Protestant population. The act guaranteed religious freedom to all Christians. Maryland was unique in that it became a refuge for Catholic immigrants, and although Catholics were a minority in Maryland their rights were protected Jacob Leisler- In New York in 1689, Jacob Leisler seized control of the government for two years before being sent to the gallows. But for two decades struggles continued between those who shared Leisler’s dislike of English rule and those who had opposed his takeover. He took control of New York. He was arrested for denying English troops to enter key forts. He arrested many new Yorkers for questioning his authority. John Peter Zenger- Another political problem occurred when Governor William Cosby made a claim for back salary and was opposed by forces led by Lewis Morris. Morrisites established a weekly journal which was eventually closed down and which led to the trial for seditious libel of its editor, John Peter Zenger. Deism- The religion of the Enlightenment (1700s). Followers believed that God existed and had created the world, but that afterwards He left it to run by its own natural laws. Denied that God communicated to man or in any way influenced his life. Albany Plan of Union- During the French and Indian War, Franklin wrote this proposal for a unified colonial government, which would operate under the authority of the British government. Gives the arousal of William Pitt. The first time the colonies unite. Great War for Empire- increased tensions between France and Britain. France puts up forts around their land. Britain is defeated in Ohio because they have really bad Generals and Native Americans are allied with France, But Irukoy Indians ally with Britain. It is the cause of the first meeting between all 13 colonies. William Pitt was appointed general and helped defeat the French. Regulator Movement- was the attempt to regulate taxes in North Carolina where citizens took up arms against corrupt colonial officials. While unsuccessful, some historians consider it a catalyst to the American Revolutionary War. Stono Rebellion in NY- the rebellion against slavery in New York. One of the earliest known organized rebellions in the present United States, it was led by native Africans who were Catholic and the rebellion was suppressed. Treaty of Paris (1763)- 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended hostilities and gave England dominance in North America. France is out of New World. North Carolina Regulators- Western frontiersmen who in 1768 rebelled in protest against the high taxes imposed by the Eastern colonial government of North Carolina, and whose organization was crushed by military force by Governor Tryon in 1771. In South Carolina, groups of vigilantes who organized to fight outlaw bands along the Western frontier in 1767-1769, and who disbanded when regular courts were established in those areas. Sugar Act (1764)- The passage of the Sugar Act (1764), which placed tariffs on sugar, coffee, wines, and other imported products, was denounced by the colonists as taxation without representation. Also in 1764, the government in London restricted the printing, although not the use of, paper money in the colonies. Salutary neglect- colonists resorted to smuggling and bribery to bypass Parliamentary regulations. Mercantilistic laws merely steered American economy toward England, and the colonies enjoyed almost continuous prosperity from 1650 until the Revolution. Proclamation of 1763- Proclamation of 1763. No settlers were to cross the Appalachian divide, only licensed traders could do business in that area, and the purchase of Indian land was outlawed. The purpose of the proclamation was to organize Great Britains new North American empire and to stabilize relations with Native North Americans through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier. Tea Act 1773- The final crisis in the ongoing conflict over imperial control surfaced in 1773 when Parliament, in attempting to save the corrupt and inefficient British East India Company from bankruptcy, gave the company a monopoly on colonial tea trade. Although this action reduced the price of tea (middlemen were eliminated), Americans regarded it as a sly attempt to trap them into paying the tea tax. In Boston the situation deteriorated as Samuel Adams and other propagandists inflamed the public to a point that on December 16, 1773, the Boston Tea Party occurred. Coercive Acts 1774- All of these names refer to the same acts, passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party, and which included the Boston Port Act, which shut down Boston Harbor; the Massachusetts Government Act, which disbanded the Boston Assembly (but it soon reinstated itself); the Quartering Act, which required the colony to provide provisions for British soldiers; and the Administration of Justice Act, which removed the power of colonial courts to arrest royal officers. Albany Plan-Stamp Act Congress 1765- taxed many kinds of printed matter, including newspapers, legal documents, and licenses. Was direct taxing by eng. An intercolonial Stamp Act Congress passed resolutions of protest, and relations were further strained as colonists burned the stamps, boycotted British goods, and the Sons of Liberty resorted to some violence. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act (1766). Writs of Assistance- Search warrants issued by the British government. They allowed officials to search houses and ships for smuggled goods, and to enlist colonials to help them search. The writs could be used anywhere, anytime, as often as desired. The officials did not need to prove that there was reasonable cause to believe that the person subject to the search had committed a crime or might have possession of contraband before getting a writ or searching a house. The writs were protested by the colonies. Declaratory Act 1766- On the same day Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, it passed a Declaratory Act establishing its right to enact any colonial legislation it deemed proper. The Declaratory Act highlighted the degree to which British and Americans had drifted apart on the concepts of representation, constitution, and sovereignty. Townshend Acts 1767- Facing the possibility of a deficit budget, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts (1767) which placed new taxes on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea. Colonists immediately began boycotting British imports and influential Americans began questioning the basis of the British colonial system. The spectrum of debate ranged from the moderate views of John Dickinson to the radical opinions of Samuel Adams. Boston Massacre 1770- On March 5, 1770, idlers tossed snowballs at Redcoats guarding the Boston Custom House, and panicking soldiers fired their muskets into the crowd, killing five. Although radicals like Samuel Adams played up the incident, cooler heads prevailed and a post-massacre truce settled over British America. Circular Letter- a letter sent by Sam Adams to colonies that says taxing is unconstitutional. Virtual Actual Representation- Virtual representation means that a representative is not elected by his constituents, but he resembles them in his political beliefs and goals. Actual representation mean that a representative is elected by his constituents. The colonies only had virtual representation in the British government. 1st-2nd Continental Congress- The First Continental Congress met to discuss their concerns over Parliaments dissolutions of the New York (for refusing to pay to quarter troops), Massachusetts (for the Boston Tea Party), and Virginia Assemblies. The First Continental Congress rejected the plan for a unified colonial government, stated grievances against the crown called the Declaration of Rights, resolved to prepare militias, and created the Continental Association to enforce a new non-importation agreement through Committees of Vigilence. In response, in February, 1775, Parliament declared the colonies to be in rebellion. It met in 1776 and drafted and signed the Declaration of Independence, which justified the Revolutionary War and declared that the colonies should be independent of Britain. Sam Adams- A Massachusetts politician who was a radical fighter for colonial independence. Helped organize the Sons of Liberty and the Non-Importation Commission, which protested the Townshend Acts, and is believed to have lead the Boston Tea Party. He served in the Continental Congress throughout the Revolution, and served as Governor of Massachusetts from 1794-1797. John Dickenson- Drafted a declaration of colonial rights and grievances, and also wrote the series of Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania in 1767 to protest the Townshend Acts. Although an outspoken critic of British policies towards the colonies, Dickinson opposed the Revolution, and, as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1776, refused to sign the Declaration of Independence. Sons of Liberty- A radical political organization for colonial independence which formed in 1765 after the passage of the Stamp Act. They incited riots and burned the customs houses where the stamped British paper was kept. After the repeal of the Stamp Act, many of the local chapters formed the Committees of Correspondence which continued to promote opposition to British policies towards the colonies. The Sons leaders included Samuel Adams and Paul Revere. Unit II Terms Olive Branch Petition- a petition sent by John Dickinson during the Second Continental Congress to George III of Britain to try and reconcile their feuds. It fails to have any effect because by the time the petition arrives in Britain George III knows about Bunker’s Hill and declares Massachusetts in open rebellion so he cuts off all imports to colonies, which will cause major economic problems. Common Sense- a testament written by Tomas Paine to challenge the authority of the British government and the royal monarchy. He writes it to try and create a greater awareness that colonist need independence. It is simple and easy to read. Called for colonists to realize their mistreatment and push for independence from England. Attacked King George III and the monarchy itself. As a result, Continental Congress unleashed privateers against British commerce, open American ports, established state governments. Loyalists- colonists that fight for the British during the Revolution. They included Canadian elites in fear of Americans spreading into their land, some native Americans, and were influenced by the Whigs. They wanted to remain loyal to the British king. Yorktown (1781)- The Battle of Yorktown. It is the decisive battle that ends the Revolutionary War. It forced the British to surrender and negotiate some sort of agreement between America. It leads to the Treaty of Paris 1783 which acknowledged the colonies as independent. Thomas Paine- author of Common Sense. He wanted to create more awareness to colonists about what Britain was doing. He wanted to inspire colonists to do something about their independence. Declaration of Independence- the statement adopted on July 4th that declared that the colonies were no longer part of Britain. Sharply separated Loyalists from Patriots and helped to start the American Revolution by allowing England to hear of the colonists disagreements with British authority. Franco-American Alliance-Saratoga (1778)- an alliance formed between France and the United States. France agrees to help America militarily and economically to defeat and weaken Britain. Articles of Confederation (1781)- The first form of federal government. It had limited national power. It requires a unanimous vote from all colonies to ratify a law, donations instead of taxes, inadequate central government. Gave states independence and more power over national government (able to form treaties, control foreign policy, coin money). Its successes were the Land ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance 1787. Peace of Paris (1783)- Treaty between America and Britain. It recognizes America’s independence. It required all British troops to be evacuated as long as loyalists were paid; all land east of Mississippi went to America, fishing rights of grand banks. Saratoga-Yorktown- two important and decisive battles for America. They are both victories for America.   Republican Motherhood- Came from US War of Independence. Concept that women should educate themselves in the principles of liberty, independence, and democracy so as to inculcate the coming generation with these republican values. This was one sign that women were becoming more respected as intellectually capable. Shays Rebellion 1786- Daniel Shay (Revolutionary War veteran) gathered farmers and marched to courthouse because of trade issues and taxes, preventing state Supreme Court from meeting. State sent troops to fight them and suppressed them. Shay and his rebellion were arrested. Land Ordinance of 1785 -Provided for surveying western territories into 6 square mile townships before sale at auction. Compromise between south’s sale to individuals and NE’s sale to groups or companies. 1 section for education and schooling. Imposts -Section 8 of the Constitution. Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defense and general Welfare of the US. But all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the US. Annapolis Convention 17855 -states met â€Å"to discuss common problems of commerce†. All talk, no action. Decided not to make any changes due to lack of reps from other states, so Hamilton suggested they meet in Philadelphia to â€Å"fix† the Articles of Confederation. 3/5 Compromise-North argued slaves should be counted for federal taxation. South disagreed but still wanted slaves counted as people to determine number in House of Representatives. Eventually Every slave counted as 3/5 of a person. 1808 Compromise- Allowed the slave trade to continue, but placed a date-certain on its survival. Congress eventually passed a law outlawing the slave trade that became effective on January 1, 1808. Virginia Plan- a political plan that wanted 2 houses; upper and lower. A strong central government and representation that is proportional to population.   New Jersey Plan- a political plan that wanted equal representation in every state regardless of population.   Northwest Ordinance of 1787- Establishes government for West. First governed by governor and 3 judges, then territory with legislature, and then state. Determines process of dividing territory and writing territory constitution. Banded by Ohio Mississippi Rivers and Great Lakes. Same rights as original 13 states. Prohibited slavery. Great Compromise- Delegates at Great Convention decided to have bicameral legislature: Lower House- House of Representatives dependent on population (Virginia Plan – favored by larger states) and Upper House- Senate, with equal number of representatives per state (2 per state) (New Jersey Plan – small states). All revenue bills begin in house. Any bill that says it will take money will begin in house of representatives because they are closer to the people. The Federalists Papers 1788- by Madison, Jay and Hamilton. To convince voters in Virginia and New York that constitution was worth a chance. Had little impact but finally New York and Virginia supported it. Checks and balances- Phrase to describe the separation of powers/branches of government. By dividing powers between legislature, executive (President), and judiciary, no one branch can be too powerful. Each one can â€Å"check† the other’s actions. Antifederalists -People against federalists in 1787. Disagreed with the Constitution because they believed peoples rights were being taken away without a Bill of Rights. Appealed to â€Å"common man† as they didn’t want an elected aristocracy. Gave in a bit when promised the Bill of Rights, which they wanted because the British constitution is unwritten so no one can claim any rights. Bill of Rights 1791- By Madison (since he wrote the Constitution too). First 10 amendments of Constitution. Added in 1791. Guarantees civil liberties like freedom of speech, free press, and freedom of religion, etc. written to satisfy the needs of states fearful of losing their rights (anti-federalists. Hamiltons Economic Plans 1792-94- Funding and Assumption. (Funding- funding the national debt. Spend your way out of debt by funding the old debt. Government taxes and uses bonds (citizens lend government money) people who gave money will pay taxes, will want government to succeed so they get their money back.) (Assumption- the central government takes (assumes) all of the state debts.) Funding and assumption later lead to the formation of political parties. Whiskey Rebellion 1795- 1st major challenge to federal authority. Small rebellion that began in Southwestern Pennsylvania in 1794. Challenge to the national governments unjust use of an excise tax on whiskey. Washington crushed the rebellion with excessive force, proving the strength of the national governments power in its military. Shows that constitution is supreme law and that there are severe limits to what people can do to oppose government.